mito2/

gc.rs

// Copyright 2023 Greptime Team
//
// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
// You may obtain a copy of the License at
//
//     http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
//
// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
// limitations under the License.

//! GC worker which periodically checks and removes unused/obsolete  SST files.
//!
//! `expel time`: the time when the file is considered as removed, as in removed from the manifest.
//! `lingering time`: the time duration before deleting files after they are removed from manifest.
//! `delta manifest`: the manifest files after the last checkpoint that contains the changes to the manifest.
//! `delete time`: the time when the file is actually deleted from the object store.
//! `unknown files`: files that are not recorded in the manifest, usually due to saved checkpoint which remove actions before the checkpoint.
//!

use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap, HashSet};
use std::sync::Arc;
use std::time::Duration;

use common_meta::datanode::GcStat;
use common_telemetry::tracing::Instrument as _;
use common_telemetry::{debug, error, info, warn};
use common_time::Timestamp;
use itertools::Itertools;
use object_store::{Entry, ErrorKind, Lister};
use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
use snafu::{ResultExt as _, ensure};
use store_api::storage::{FileId, FileRef, FileRefsManifest, GcReport, IndexVersion, RegionId};
use tokio::sync::{OwnedSemaphorePermit, TryAcquireError};
use tokio_stream::StreamExt;

use crate::access_layer::AccessLayerRef;
use crate::cache::CacheManagerRef;
use crate::cache::file_cache::FileType;
use crate::config::MitoConfig;
use crate::error::{
    DurationOutOfRangeSnafu, InvalidRequestSnafu, JoinSnafu, OpenDalSnafu, Result,
    TooManyGcJobsSnafu, UnexpectedSnafu,
};
use crate::manifest::action::{RegionManifest, RemovedFile};
use crate::metrics::{
    GC_DELETE_FILE_CNT, GC_DURATION_SECONDS, GC_ERRORS_TOTAL, GC_FILES_DELETED_TOTAL,
    GC_ORPHANED_INDEX_FILES, GC_RUNS_TOTAL, GC_SKIPPED_UNPARSABLE_FILES,
};
use crate::region::{MitoRegionRef, RegionRoleState};
use crate::sst::file::{RegionFileId, RegionIndexId, delete_files, delete_indexes};
use crate::sst::location::{self};

#[cfg(test)]
mod worker_test;

/// Helper function to determine if a file should be deleted based on common logic
/// shared between Parquet and Puffin file types.
fn should_delete_file(
    is_in_manifest: bool,
    is_in_tmp_ref: bool,
    is_linger: bool,
    is_eligible_for_delete: bool,
    is_region_dropped: bool,
    _entry: &Entry,
    _unknown_file_may_linger_until: chrono::DateTime<chrono::Utc>,
) -> bool {
    let is_known = is_linger || is_eligible_for_delete;

    !is_in_manifest
        && !is_in_tmp_ref
        && if is_known {
            is_eligible_for_delete
        } else {
            !is_in_tmp_ref && is_region_dropped
        }
}

/// Limit the amount of concurrent GC jobs on the datanode
pub struct GcLimiter {
    pub gc_job_limit: Arc<tokio::sync::Semaphore>,
    gc_concurrency: usize,
}

pub type GcLimiterRef = Arc<GcLimiter>;

impl GcLimiter {
    pub fn new(gc_concurrency: usize) -> Self {
        Self {
            gc_job_limit: Arc::new(tokio::sync::Semaphore::new(gc_concurrency)),
            gc_concurrency,
        }
    }

    pub fn running_gc_tasks(&self) -> u32 {
        (self.gc_concurrency - self.gc_job_limit.available_permits()) as u32
    }

    pub fn gc_concurrency(&self) -> u32 {
        self.gc_concurrency as u32
    }

    pub fn gc_stat(&self) -> GcStat {
        GcStat::new(self.running_gc_tasks(), self.gc_concurrency())
    }

    /// Try to acquire a permit for a GC job.
    ///
    /// If no permit is available, returns an `TooManyGcJobs` error.
    pub fn permit(&self) -> Result<OwnedSemaphorePermit> {
        self.gc_job_limit
            .clone()
            .try_acquire_owned()
            .map_err(|e| match e {
                TryAcquireError::Closed => UnexpectedSnafu {
                    reason: format!("Failed to acquire gc permit: {e}"),
                }
                .build(),
                TryAcquireError::NoPermits => TooManyGcJobsSnafu {}.build(),
            })
    }
}

#[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Serialize, Deserialize)]
#[serde(default)]
pub struct GcConfig {
    /// Whether GC is enabled.
    pub enable: bool,
    /// Lingering time before deleting files.
    /// Should be long enough to allow long running queries to finish.
    /// If set to None, then unused files will be deleted immediately.
    ///
    #[serde(with = "humantime_serde")]
    pub lingering_time: Option<Duration>,
    /// Lingering time before deleting unknown files(files with undetermine expel time).
    /// expel time is the time when the file is considered as removed, as in removed from the manifest.
    /// This should only occur rarely, as manifest keep tracks in `removed_files` field
    /// unless something goes wrong.
    #[serde(with = "humantime_serde")]
    pub unknown_file_lingering_time: Duration,
    /// Maximum concurrent list operations per GC job.
    /// This is used to limit the number of concurrent listing operations and speed up listing.
    pub max_concurrent_lister_per_gc_job: usize,
    /// Maximum concurrent GC jobs.
    /// This is used to limit the number of concurrent GC jobs running on the datanode
    /// to prevent too many concurrent GC jobs from overwhelming the datanode.
    pub max_concurrent_gc_job: usize,
}

impl Default for GcConfig {
    fn default() -> Self {
        Self {
            enable: false,
            // expect long running queries to be finished(or at least be able to notify it's using a deleted file) within a reasonable time
            lingering_time: Some(Duration::from_secs(60)),
            // 1 hours, for unknown expel time, which is when this file get removed from manifest, it should rarely happen, can keep it longer
            unknown_file_lingering_time: Duration::from_secs(60 * 60),
            max_concurrent_lister_per_gc_job: 32,
            max_concurrent_gc_job: 4,
        }
    }
}

pub struct LocalGcWorker {
    pub(crate) access_layer: AccessLayerRef,
    pub(crate) cache_manager: Option<CacheManagerRef>,
    pub(crate) regions: BTreeMap<RegionId, Option<MitoRegionRef>>,
    /// Lingering time before deleting files.
    pub(crate) opt: GcConfig,
    /// Tmp ref files manifest, used to determine which files are still in use by ongoing queries.
    ///
    /// Also contains manifest versions of regions when the tmp ref files are generated.
    /// Used to determine whether the tmp ref files are outdated.
    pub(crate) file_ref_manifest: FileRefsManifest,
    _permit: OwnedSemaphorePermit,
    /// Whether to perform full file listing during GC.
    /// When set to false, GC will only delete files that are tracked in the manifest's removed_files,
    /// which can significantly improve performance by avoiding expensive list operations.
    /// When set to true, GC will perform a full listing to find and delete orphan files
    /// (files not tracked in the manifest).
    ///
    /// Set to false for regular GC operations to optimize performance.
    /// Set to true periodically or when you need to clean up orphan files.
    pub full_file_listing: bool,
}

pub struct ManifestOpenConfig {
    pub compress_manifest: bool,
    pub manifest_checkpoint_distance: u64,
    pub experimental_manifest_keep_removed_file_count: usize,
    pub experimental_manifest_keep_removed_file_ttl: Duration,
}

impl From<MitoConfig> for ManifestOpenConfig {
    fn from(mito_config: MitoConfig) -> Self {
        Self {
            compress_manifest: mito_config.compress_manifest,
            manifest_checkpoint_distance: mito_config.manifest_checkpoint_distance,
            experimental_manifest_keep_removed_file_count: mito_config
                .experimental_manifest_keep_removed_file_count,
            experimental_manifest_keep_removed_file_ttl: mito_config
                .experimental_manifest_keep_removed_file_ttl,
        }
    }
}

impl LocalGcWorker {
    /// Create a new LocalGcWorker, with `regions_to_gc` regions to GC.
    /// The regions are specified by their `RegionId` and should all belong to the same table.
    ///
    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
    pub async fn try_new(
        access_layer: AccessLayerRef,
        cache_manager: Option<CacheManagerRef>,
        regions_to_gc: BTreeMap<RegionId, Option<MitoRegionRef>>,
        opt: GcConfig,
        file_ref_manifest: FileRefsManifest,
        limiter: &GcLimiterRef,
        full_file_listing: bool,
    ) -> Result<Self> {
        if let Some(first_region_id) = regions_to_gc.keys().next() {
            let table_id = first_region_id.table_id();
            for region_id in regions_to_gc.keys() {
                ensure!(
                    region_id.table_id() == table_id,
                    InvalidRequestSnafu {
                        region_id: *region_id,
                        reason: format!(
                            "Region {} does not belong to table {}",
                            region_id, table_id
                        ),
                    }
                );
            }
        }

        let permit = limiter.permit()?;

        Ok(Self {
            access_layer,
            cache_manager,
            regions: regions_to_gc,
            opt,
            file_ref_manifest,
            _permit: permit,
            full_file_listing,
        })
    }

    /// Get tmp ref files for all current regions
    pub async fn read_tmp_ref_files(&self) -> Result<HashMap<RegionId, HashSet<FileRef>>> {
        let mut tmp_ref_files = HashMap::new();
        for (region_id, file_refs) in &self.file_ref_manifest.file_refs {
            tmp_ref_files
                .entry(*region_id)
                .or_insert_with(HashSet::new)
                .extend(file_refs.clone());
            // no need to include manifest files here, as they are already included in region manifest
        }

        Ok(tmp_ref_files)
    }

    /// Run the GC worker in serial mode,
    /// considering list files could be slow and run multiple regions in parallel
    /// may cause too many concurrent listing operations.
    ///
    /// TODO(discord9): consider instead running in parallel mode
    #[common_telemetry::tracing::instrument(
        skip_all,
        fields(region_count = self.regions.len(), full_file_listing = self.full_file_listing)
    )]
    pub async fn run(self) -> Result<GcReport> {
        info!("LocalGcWorker started");
        let _timer = GC_DURATION_SECONDS
            .with_label_values(&["total"])
            .start_timer();
        let now = std::time::Instant::now();

        let mut deleted_files = HashMap::new();
        let mut deleted_indexes = HashMap::new();
        let mut processed_regions = HashSet::new();
        let tmp_ref_files = self.read_tmp_ref_files().await?;
        for (region_id, region) in &self.regions {
            let per_region_time = std::time::Instant::now();
            if region.as_ref().map(|r| r.manifest_ctx.current_state())
                == Some(RegionRoleState::Follower)
            {
                return UnexpectedSnafu {
                    reason: format!(
                        "Region {} is in Follower state, should not run GC on follower regions",
                        region_id
                    ),
                }
                .fail();
            }
            let tmp_ref_files = tmp_ref_files
                .get(region_id)
                .cloned()
                .unwrap_or_else(HashSet::new);
            let files = self
                .do_region_gc(*region_id, region.clone(), &tmp_ref_files)
                .await?;
            let index_files = files
                .iter()
                .filter_map(|f| f.index_version().map(|v| (f.file_id(), v)))
                .collect_vec();
            let data_files = files
                .into_iter()
                .filter_map(|f| match f {
                    RemovedFile::File(file_id, _) => Some(file_id),
                    RemovedFile::Index(_, _) => None,
                })
                .collect();
            deleted_files.insert(*region_id, data_files);
            deleted_indexes.insert(*region_id, index_files);
            processed_regions.insert(*region_id);
            debug!(
                "GC for region {} took {} secs.",
                region_id,
                per_region_time.elapsed().as_secs_f32()
            );
        }
        info!(
            "LocalGcWorker finished after {} secs.",
            now.elapsed().as_secs_f32()
        );
        let report = GcReport {
            deleted_files,
            deleted_indexes,
            need_retry_regions: HashSet::new(),
            processed_regions,
        };
        Ok(report)
    }
}

impl LocalGcWorker {
    /// concurrency of listing files per region.
    /// This is used to limit the number of concurrent listing operations and speed up listing
    pub const CONCURRENCY_LIST_PER_FILES: usize = 1024;

    /// Perform GC for the region.
    /// 1. Get all the removed files in delta manifest files and their expel times
    /// 2. List all files in the region dir concurrently
    /// 3. Filter out the files that are still in use or may still be kept for a while
    /// 4. Delete the unused files
    ///
    /// Note that the files that are still in use or may still be kept for a while are not deleted
    /// to avoid deleting files that are still needed.
    #[common_telemetry::tracing::instrument(
        skip_all,
        fields(
            region_id = %region_id,
            full_file_listing = self.full_file_listing,
            region_present = region.is_some()
        )
    )]
    pub async fn do_region_gc(
        &self,
        region_id: RegionId,
        region: Option<MitoRegionRef>,
        tmp_ref_files: &HashSet<FileRef>,
    ) -> Result<Vec<RemovedFile>> {
        let mode = if self.full_file_listing {
            "full_listing"
        } else {
            "fast"
        };
        GC_RUNS_TOTAL.with_label_values(&[mode]).inc();
        debug!(
            "Doing gc for region {}, {}",
            region_id,
            if region.is_some() {
                "region found"
            } else {
                "region not found, might be dropped"
            }
        );

        ensure!(
            region.is_some() || self.full_file_listing,
            InvalidRequestSnafu {
                region_id,
                reason: "region not found and full_file_listing is false; refusing GC without full listing".to_string(),
            }
        );

        let manifest = if let Some(region) = &region {
            let manifest = region.manifest_ctx.manifest().await;
            // If the manifest version does not match, skip GC for this region to avoid deleting files that are still in use.
            let file_ref_manifest_version = self
                .file_ref_manifest
                .manifest_version
                .get(&region.region_id())
                .cloned();
            if file_ref_manifest_version != Some(manifest.manifest_version) {
                // should be rare enough(few seconds after leader update manifest version), just skip gc for this region
                warn!(
                    "Tmp ref files manifest version {:?} does not match region {} manifest version {}, skip gc for this region",
                    file_ref_manifest_version,
                    region.region_id(),
                    manifest.manifest_version
                );
                GC_ERRORS_TOTAL
                    .with_label_values(&["manifest_mismatch"])
                    .inc();
                return Ok(vec![]);
            }
            Some(manifest)
        } else {
            None
        };

        let all_entries = if let Some(manifest) = &manifest
            && self.full_file_listing
        {
            // do the time consuming listing only when full_file_listing is true(and region is open)
            // and do it first to make sure we have the latest manifest etc.
            self.list_from_object_store(region_id, manifest.files.len())
                .await?
        } else if manifest.is_none() && self.full_file_listing {
            // if region is already dropped, we have no manifest to refer to,
            // so only do gc if `full_file_listing` is true, otherwise just skip it
            // TODO(discord9): is doing one serial listing enough here?
            self.list_from_object_store(region_id, Self::CONCURRENCY_LIST_PER_FILES)
                .await?
        } else {
            vec![]
        };

        let recently_removed_files = if let Some(manifest) = &manifest {
            self.get_removed_files_expel_times(manifest).await?
        } else {
            Default::default()
        };

        if recently_removed_files.is_empty() {
            // no files to remove, skip
            debug!("No recently removed files to gc for region {}", region_id);
        }

        let removed_file_cnt = recently_removed_files
            .values()
            .map(|s| s.len())
            .sum::<usize>();

        let current_files = manifest.as_ref().map(|m| &m.files);

        let in_manifest = if let Some(current_files) = current_files {
            current_files
                .iter()
                .map(|(file_id, meta)| (*file_id, meta.index_version()))
                .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>()
        } else {
            Default::default()
        };

        let is_region_dropped = region.is_none();

        let in_tmp_ref = tmp_ref_files
            .iter()
            .map(|file_ref| (file_ref.file_id, file_ref.index_version))
            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();

        let deletable_files = self
            .list_to_be_deleted_files(
                region_id,
                is_region_dropped,
                &in_manifest,
                &in_tmp_ref,
                recently_removed_files,
                all_entries,
            )
            .await?;

        let unused_file_cnt = deletable_files.len();

        info!(
            "gc: for region{}{region_id}: In manifest file cnt: {}, Tmp ref file cnt: {}, recently removed files: {}, Unused files to delete count: {}",
            if region.is_none() {
                "(region dropped)"
            } else {
                ""
            },
            current_files.map(|c| c.len()).unwrap_or(0),
            tmp_ref_files.len(),
            removed_file_cnt,
            deletable_files.len(),
        );
        debug!(
            "gc: deletable files for region {}: {:?}",
            region_id, &deletable_files
        );

        debug!(
            "Found {} unused index files to delete for region {}",
            deletable_files.len(),
            region_id
        );

        let _delete_timer = GC_DURATION_SECONDS
            .with_label_values(&["delete_files"])
            .start_timer();
        self.delete_files(region_id, &deletable_files).await?;

        debug!(
            "Successfully deleted {} unused files for region {}",
            unused_file_cnt, region_id
        );
        if let Some(region) = &region {
            let _update_timer = GC_DURATION_SECONDS
                .with_label_values(&["update_manifest"])
                .start_timer();
            self.update_manifest_removed_files(region, deletable_files.clone())
                .await?;
        }

        Ok(deletable_files)
    }

    #[common_telemetry::tracing::instrument(
        skip_all,
        fields(region_id = %region_id, removed_file_count = removed_files.len())
    )]
    async fn delete_files(&self, region_id: RegionId, removed_files: &[RemovedFile]) -> Result<()> {
        let mut index_ids = vec![];
        let file_pairs = removed_files
            .iter()
            .filter_map(|f| match f {
                RemovedFile::File(file_id, v) => Some((*file_id, v.unwrap_or(0))),
                RemovedFile::Index(file_id, index_version) => {
                    let region_index_id =
                        RegionIndexId::new(RegionFileId::new(region_id, *file_id), *index_version);
                    index_ids.push(region_index_id);
                    None
                }
            })
            .collect_vec();
        delete_files(
            region_id,
            &file_pairs,
            true,
            &self.access_layer,
            &self.cache_manager,
        )
        .await?;

        if !file_pairs.is_empty() {
            let deleted_count = file_pairs.len() as u64;
            GC_FILES_DELETED_TOTAL
                .with_label_values(&["parquet"])
                .inc_by(deleted_count);
            GC_DELETE_FILE_CNT.inc_by(deleted_count);
        }

        if !index_ids.is_empty() {
            let deleted_count = index_ids.len() as u64;
            delete_indexes(&index_ids, &self.access_layer, &self.cache_manager)
                .await
                .inspect_err(|_| {
                    GC_ERRORS_TOTAL.with_label_values(&["delete_failed"]).inc();
                })?;
            GC_FILES_DELETED_TOTAL
                .with_label_values(&["index"])
                .inc_by(deleted_count);
            GC_DELETE_FILE_CNT.inc_by(deleted_count);
        }

        Ok(())
    }

    /// Update region manifest for clear the actually deleted files
    #[common_telemetry::tracing::instrument(
        skip_all,
        fields(region_id = %region.region_id(), deleted_file_count = deleted_files.len())
    )]
    async fn update_manifest_removed_files(
        &self,
        region: &MitoRegionRef,
        deleted_files: Vec<RemovedFile>,
    ) -> Result<()> {
        let deleted_file_cnt = deleted_files.len();
        debug!(
            "Trying to update manifest for {deleted_file_cnt} removed files for region {}",
            region.region_id()
        );

        let mut manager = region.manifest_ctx.manifest_manager.write().await;
        let cnt = deleted_files.len();
        manager.clear_deleted_files(deleted_files);
        debug!(
            "Updated region_id={} region manifest to clear {cnt} deleted files",
            region.region_id(),
        );

        Ok(())
    }

    /// Get all the removed files in delta manifest files and their expel times.
    /// The expel time is the time when the file is considered as removed.
    /// Which is the last modified time of delta manifest which contains the remove action.
    ///
    pub async fn get_removed_files_expel_times(
        &self,
        region_manifest: &Arc<RegionManifest>,
    ) -> Result<BTreeMap<Timestamp, HashSet<RemovedFile>>> {
        let mut ret = BTreeMap::new();
        for files in &region_manifest.removed_files.removed_files {
            let expel_time = Timestamp::new_millisecond(files.removed_at);
            let set = ret.entry(expel_time).or_insert_with(HashSet::new);
            set.extend(files.files.iter().cloned());
        }

        Ok(ret)
    }

    /// Create partitioned listers for concurrent file listing based on concurrency level.
    /// Returns a vector of (lister, end_boundary) pairs for parallel processing.
    async fn partition_region_files(
        &self,
        region_id: RegionId,
        concurrency: usize,
    ) -> Result<Vec<(Lister, Option<String>)>> {
        let region_dir = self.access_layer.build_region_dir(region_id);

        let partitions = gen_partition_from_concurrency(concurrency);
        let bounds = vec![None]
            .into_iter()
            .chain(partitions.iter().map(|p| Some(p.clone())))
            .chain(vec![None])
            .collect::<Vec<_>>();

        let mut listers = vec![];
        for part in bounds.windows(2) {
            let start = part[0].clone();
            let end = part[1].clone();
            let mut lister = self.access_layer.object_store().lister_with(&region_dir);
            if let Some(s) = start {
                lister = lister.start_after(&s);
            }

            let lister = lister.await.context(OpenDalSnafu)?;
            listers.push((lister, end));
        }

        Ok(listers)
    }

    /// List all files in the region directory.
    /// Returns a vector of all file entries found.
    /// This might take a long time if there are many files in the region directory.
    #[common_telemetry::tracing::instrument(
        skip_all,
        fields(region_id = %region_id, file_cnt_hint = file_cnt_hint)
    )]
    async fn list_from_object_store(
        &self,
        region_id: RegionId,
        file_cnt_hint: usize,
    ) -> Result<Vec<Entry>> {
        let _timer = GC_DURATION_SECONDS
            .with_label_values(&["list_files"])
            .start_timer();
        let start = tokio::time::Instant::now();
        let concurrency = (file_cnt_hint / Self::CONCURRENCY_LIST_PER_FILES)
            .max(1)
            .min(self.opt.max_concurrent_lister_per_gc_job);

        let listers = self
            .partition_region_files(region_id, concurrency)
            .await
            .inspect_err(|_| {
                GC_ERRORS_TOTAL.with_label_values(&["list_failed"]).inc();
            })?;
        let lister_cnt = listers.len();

        // Step 2: Concurrently list all parquet files in the region root directory
        let mut all_entries = self
            .list_region_files_concurrent(listers)
            .await
            .inspect_err(|_| {
                GC_ERRORS_TOTAL.with_label_values(&["list_failed"]).inc();
            })?;
        let root_cnt = all_entries.len();

        // Step 2b: Flat-list region_dir/index/ for puffin files.
        // This is NOT a recursive listing — we only list the index/
        // subdirectory to avoid scanning nested dirs/staging/blob/cache.
        let index_entries = self
            .list_region_index_files(region_id)
            .await
            .inspect_err(|_| {
                GC_ERRORS_TOTAL.with_label_values(&["list_failed"]).inc();
            })?;
        let index_cnt = index_entries.len();
        all_entries.extend(index_entries);
        info!(
            "gc: full listing mode cost {} secs using {lister_cnt} lister for root={root_cnt} index={index_cnt} files in region {}.",
            start.elapsed().as_secs_f64(),
            region_id
        );
        Ok(all_entries)
    }

    /// Flat-list puffin files from `region_dir/index/`.
    /// If the index directory does not exist, returns an empty vec without error.
    /// Only `.puffin` files (not subdirectories) are included.
    async fn list_region_index_files(&self, region_id: RegionId) -> Result<Vec<Entry>> {
        let region_dir = self.access_layer.build_region_dir(region_id);
        let index_dir = object_store::util::join_dir(&region_dir, "index");

        let mut lister = match self
            .access_layer
            .object_store()
            .lister_with(&index_dir)
            .await
        {
            Ok(l) => l,
            Err(e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound => {
                // Index dir may not exist — that's fine, just log and return empty.
                // object-store backends (especially filesystem) may error on
                // non-existent directories.
                debug!(
                    "Index directory not found for region {}: {}. Treating as empty.",
                    region_id, e
                );
                return Ok(vec![]);
            }
            Err(e) => return Err(e).context(OpenDalSnafu),
        };

        let mut entries = Vec::new();
        while let Some(entry) = lister.next().await {
            let entry = entry.context(OpenDalSnafu)?;
            if entry.metadata().is_file() && entry.name().ends_with(".puffin") {
                entries.push(entry);
            }
        }

        Ok(entries)
    }

    /// Concurrently list all files in the region directory using the provided listers.
    /// Returns a vector of all file entries found across all partitions.
    async fn list_region_files_concurrent(
        &self,
        listers: Vec<(Lister, Option<String>)>,
    ) -> Result<Vec<Entry>> {
        let (tx, mut rx) = tokio::sync::mpsc::channel(1024);
        let mut handles = vec![];

        for (lister, end) in listers {
            let tx = tx.clone();
            let handle = tokio::spawn(
                async move {
                    let stream = lister.take_while(|e: &std::result::Result<Entry, _>| match e {
                        Ok(e) => {
                            if let Some(end) = &end {
                                // reach end, stop listing
                                e.name() < end.as_str()
                            } else {
                                // no end, take all entries
                                true
                            }
                        }
                        // Entry went wrong. Keep listing so the error can be propagated below
                        // instead of returning a partial listing as success.
                        Err(err) => {
                            warn!("Failed to list entry: {}", err);
                            true
                        }
                    });
                    let stream = stream
                        .filter(|e| {
                            if let Ok(e) = &e {
                                // notice that we only care about files, skip dirs
                                e.metadata().is_file()
                            } else {
                                // error entry, take for further logging
                                true
                            }
                        })
                        .collect::<Vec<_>>()
                        .await;
                    // ordering of files doesn't matter here, so we can send them directly
                    tx.send(stream).await.expect("Failed to send entries");
                }
                .instrument(common_telemetry::tracing::info_span!("gc_list_partition")),
            );

            handles.push(handle);
        }

        // Wait for all listers to finish
        for handle in handles {
            handle.await.context(JoinSnafu)?;
        }

        drop(tx); // Close the channel to stop receiving

        // Collect all entries from the channel
        let mut all_entries = vec![];
        while let Some(stream) = rx.recv().await {
            for entry in stream {
                all_entries.push(entry.context(OpenDalSnafu)?);
            }
        }

        Ok(all_entries)
    }

    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
    fn filter_deletable_files(
        &self,
        is_region_dropped: bool,
        entries: Vec<Entry>,
        in_manifest: &HashMap<FileId, Option<IndexVersion>>,
        in_tmp_ref: &HashSet<(FileId, Option<IndexVersion>)>,
        may_linger_files: &HashSet<&RemovedFile>,
        eligible_for_delete: &HashSet<&RemovedFile>,
        unknown_file_may_linger_until: chrono::DateTime<chrono::Utc>,
    ) -> Vec<RemovedFile> {
        let mut ready_for_delete = vec![];
        // all group by file id for easier checking
        let in_tmp_ref: HashMap<FileId, HashSet<IndexVersion>> =
            in_tmp_ref
                .iter()
                .fold(HashMap::new(), |mut acc, (file, version)| {
                    let indices = acc.entry(*file).or_default();
                    if let Some(version) = version {
                        indices.insert(*version);
                    }
                    acc
                });

        let may_linger_files: HashMap<FileId, HashSet<&RemovedFile>> = may_linger_files
            .iter()
            .fold(HashMap::new(), |mut acc, file| {
                let indices = acc.entry(file.file_id()).or_default();
                indices.insert(file);
                acc
            });

        let eligible_for_delete: HashMap<FileId, HashSet<&RemovedFile>> = eligible_for_delete
            .iter()
            .fold(HashMap::new(), |mut acc, file| {
                let indices = acc.entry(file.file_id()).or_default();
                indices.insert(file);
                acc
            });

        for entry in entries {
            let (file_id, file_type) = match location::parse_file_id_type_from_path(entry.name()) {
                Ok((file_id, file_type)) => (file_id, file_type),
                Err(err) => {
                    error!(err; "Failed to parse file id from path: {}", entry.name());
                    // if we can't parse the file id, it means it's not a sst or index file
                    // shouldn't delete it because we don't know what it is
                    GC_SKIPPED_UNPARSABLE_FILES.inc();
                    continue;
                }
            };

            let should_delete = match file_type {
                FileType::Parquet => {
                    let is_in_manifest = in_manifest.contains_key(&file_id);
                    let is_in_tmp_ref = in_tmp_ref.contains_key(&file_id);
                    let is_linger = may_linger_files.contains_key(&file_id);
                    let is_eligible_for_delete = eligible_for_delete.contains_key(&file_id);

                    should_delete_file(
                        is_in_manifest,
                        is_in_tmp_ref,
                        is_linger,
                        is_eligible_for_delete,
                        is_region_dropped,
                        &entry,
                        unknown_file_may_linger_until,
                    )
                }
                FileType::Puffin(version) => {
                    // notice need to check both file id and version
                    let is_in_manifest = in_manifest
                        .get(&file_id)
                        .map(|opt_ver| *opt_ver == Some(version))
                        .unwrap_or(false);
                    let is_in_tmp_ref = in_tmp_ref
                        .get(&file_id)
                        .map(|versions| versions.contains(&version))
                        .unwrap_or(false);
                    let is_linger = may_linger_files
                        .get(&file_id)
                        .map(|files| files.contains(&&RemovedFile::Index(file_id, version)))
                        .unwrap_or(false);
                    let is_eligible_for_delete = eligible_for_delete
                        .get(&file_id)
                        .map(|files| files.contains(&&RemovedFile::Index(file_id, version)))
                        .unwrap_or(false);

                    should_delete_file(
                        is_in_manifest,
                        is_in_tmp_ref,
                        is_linger,
                        is_eligible_for_delete,
                        is_region_dropped,
                        &entry,
                        unknown_file_may_linger_until,
                    )
                }
            };

            if should_delete {
                let removed_file = match file_type {
                    FileType::Parquet => {
                        // notice this cause we don't track index version for parquet files
                        // since entries comes from listing, we can't get index version from path
                        RemovedFile::File(file_id, None)
                    }
                    FileType::Puffin(version) => {
                        GC_ORPHANED_INDEX_FILES.inc();
                        RemovedFile::Index(file_id, version)
                    }
                };
                ready_for_delete.push(removed_file);
            }
        }
        ready_for_delete
    }

    /// List files to be deleted based on their presence in the manifest, temporary references, and recently removed files.
    /// Returns a vector of `RemovedFile` that are eligible for deletion.
    ///
    /// When `full_file_listing` is false, this method will only delete (subset of) files tracked in
    /// `recently_removed_files`, which significantly
    /// improves performance. When `full_file_listing` is true, it read from `all_entries` to find
    /// and delete orphan files (files not tracked in the manifest).
    ///
    pub async fn list_to_be_deleted_files(
        &self,
        region_id: RegionId,
        is_region_dropped: bool,
        in_manifest: &HashMap<FileId, Option<IndexVersion>>,
        in_tmp_ref: &HashSet<(FileId, Option<IndexVersion>)>,
        recently_removed_files: BTreeMap<Timestamp, HashSet<RemovedFile>>,
        all_entries: Vec<Entry>,
    ) -> Result<Vec<RemovedFile>> {
        let now = chrono::Utc::now();
        let may_linger_until = self
            .opt
            .lingering_time
            .map(|lingering_time| {
                chrono::Duration::from_std(lingering_time)
                    .with_context(|_| DurationOutOfRangeSnafu {
                        input: lingering_time,
                    })
                    .map(|t| now - t)
            })
            .transpose()?;

        let unknown_file_may_linger_until = now
            - chrono::Duration::from_std(self.opt.unknown_file_lingering_time).with_context(
                |_| DurationOutOfRangeSnafu {
                    input: self.opt.unknown_file_lingering_time,
                },
            )?;

        // files that may linger, which means they are not in use but may still be kept for a while
        let threshold =
            may_linger_until.map(|until| Timestamp::new_millisecond(until.timestamp_millis()));
        // TODO(discord9): if region is already closed, maybe handle threshold differently?
        // is consider all files to be recently removed acceptable?
        let mut recently_removed_files = recently_removed_files;
        let may_linger_files = match threshold {
            Some(threshold) => recently_removed_files.split_off(&threshold),
            None => BTreeMap::new(),
        };
        debug!("may_linger_files: {:?}", may_linger_files);

        let all_may_linger_files = may_linger_files.values().flatten().collect::<HashSet<_>>();

        // known files(tracked in removed files field) that are eligible for removal
        // (passed lingering time)
        let eligible_for_removal = recently_removed_files
            .values()
            .flatten()
            .collect::<HashSet<_>>();

        // When full_file_listing is false, skip expensive list operations and only delete
        // files that are tracked in recently_removed_files
        if !self.full_file_listing {
            // Only delete files that:
            // 1. Are in recently_removed_files (tracked in manifest)
            // 2. Are not in use(in manifest or tmp ref)
            // 3. Have passed the lingering time
            let files_to_delete: Vec<RemovedFile> = eligible_for_removal
                .iter()
                .filter(|file_id| {
                    let in_use = match file_id {
                        RemovedFile::File(file_id, index_version) => {
                            in_manifest.get(file_id) == Some(index_version)
                                || in_tmp_ref.contains(&(*file_id, *index_version))
                        }
                        RemovedFile::Index(file_id, index_version) => {
                            in_manifest.get(file_id) == Some(&Some(*index_version))
                                || in_tmp_ref.contains(&(*file_id, Some(*index_version)))
                        }
                    };
                    !in_use
                })
                .map(|&f| f.clone())
                .collect();

            info!(
                "gc: fast mode (no full listing) for region {}, found {} files to delete from manifest",
                region_id,
                files_to_delete.len()
            );

            return Ok(files_to_delete);
        }

        // Full file listing mode: get the full list of files from object store

        // Step 3: Filter files to determine which ones can be deleted
        let all_unused_files_ready_for_delete = self.filter_deletable_files(
            is_region_dropped,
            all_entries,
            in_manifest,
            in_tmp_ref,
            &all_may_linger_files,
            &eligible_for_removal,
            unknown_file_may_linger_until,
        );

        Ok(all_unused_files_ready_for_delete)
    }
}

/// Generate partition prefixes based on concurrency and
/// assume file names are evenly-distributed uuid string,
/// to evenly distribute files across partitions.
/// For example, if concurrency is 2, partition prefixes will be:
/// ["8"] so it divide uuids into two partitions based on the first character.
/// If concurrency is 32, partition prefixes will be:
/// ["08", "10", "18", "20", "28", "30", "38" ..., "f0", "f8"]
/// if concurrency is 1, it returns an empty vector.
///
fn gen_partition_from_concurrency(concurrency: usize) -> Vec<String> {
    let n = concurrency.next_power_of_two();
    if n <= 1 {
        return vec![];
    }

    // `d` is the number of hex characters required to build the partition key.
    // `p` is the total number of possible values for a key of length `d`.
    // We need to find the smallest `d` such that 16^d >= n.
    let mut d = 0;
    let mut p: u128 = 1;
    while p < n as u128 {
        p *= 16;
        d += 1;
    }

    let total_space = p;
    let step = total_space / n as u128;

    (1..n)
        .map(|i| {
            let boundary = i as u128 * step;
            format!("{:0width$x}", boundary, width = d)
        })
        .collect()
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn test_gen_partition_from_concurrency() {
        let partitions = gen_partition_from_concurrency(1);
        assert!(partitions.is_empty());

        let partitions = gen_partition_from_concurrency(2);
        assert_eq!(partitions, vec!["8"]);

        let partitions = gen_partition_from_concurrency(3);
        assert_eq!(partitions, vec!["4", "8", "c"]);

        let partitions = gen_partition_from_concurrency(4);
        assert_eq!(partitions, vec!["4", "8", "c"]);

        let partitions = gen_partition_from_concurrency(8);
        assert_eq!(partitions, vec!["2", "4", "6", "8", "a", "c", "e"]);

        let partitions = gen_partition_from_concurrency(16);
        assert_eq!(
            partitions,
            vec![
                "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "a", "b", "c", "d", "e", "f"
            ]
        );

        let partitions = gen_partition_from_concurrency(32);
        assert_eq!(
            partitions,
            [
                "08", "10", "18", "20", "28", "30", "38", "40", "48", "50", "58", "60", "68", "70",
                "78", "80", "88", "90", "98", "a0", "a8", "b0", "b8", "c0", "c8", "d0", "d8", "e0",
                "e8", "f0", "f8",
            ]
        );
    }
}